Libertà e diritti civili | ||||||||||||||||||||
Anarco-socialismo | Radical americani | Radical-chic | Radicalismo classico britannico | Anarco-capitalismo | ||||||||||||||||
Socialismo liberale | Liberal americani | Liberalismo sociale | Liberalismo progressista | Libertarianesimo | ||||||||||||||||
Socialismo trotzkista | Socialdemocrazia classica | Liberalismo democratico | Liberalismo classico | Radicalismo liberista | ||||||||||||||||
Socialismo leninista | Socialismo democratico | Moderatismo laico | Liberalismo moderato | Neoliberismo laico | ||||||||||||||||
Egualitarismo economico | Socialismo sudamericano | Comunitarismo personalista | Popolarismo democristiano | Liberalismo conservatore | Neoliberismo | |||||||||||||||
Socialismo nazionale | Populismo comunitario | Popolarismo nazionale | Conservatorismo liberale | Neoconservatorismo | ||||||||||||||||
Comunismo sovietico | Movimentismo sociale | Nazional-popolarismo | Conservatorismo classico | Teoconservatorismo | ||||||||||||||||
Maoismo | Nazionalismo sociale | Etno-nazionalismo | Conservatorismo nazionale | Tea party | ||||||||||||||||
Nazional-comunismo stalinista | Nazional-socialismo | Fascismo | Tradizionalismo monarchico | Autoritarismo capitalista | ||||||||||||||||
Diagramma di Nolan
Da Wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera.
Il diagramma di Nolan è un diagramma politico creato da David Nolan, uno dei fondatori del Partito Libertario statunitense. Secondo questo diagramma, le azioni politiche umane propongono il raggiungimento di due obiettivi di fondo: la “libertà personale” sull'asse verticale e quella “economica” sull'asse orizzontale. Mentre i libertari tendono a proporle entrambe, chi si colloca tradizionalmente a sinistra (progressisti, socialisti e comunisti) propone più libertà personale ma meno libertà economica, e viceversa chi si colloca a destra (conservatori e fascisti).
Posizioni[modifica | modifica wikitesto]
Libertà economica |
A differenza del tradizionale spettro politico "destra/sinistra", il diagramma di Nolan descrive con i suoi assi più posizioni politiche, disposte su quattro quadranti:
- quadrante a sinistra: politica fiscale più o meno severa, sostegno al welfare, alla sanità pubblica, alla scuola statale e alla sicurezza sociale, ricerca di fondi per la cultura, restrizioni al libero scambio e agli affari ("minore libertà economica"), compensate però dall'appoggio ai diritti civili e sociali e da una maggiore apertura verso l'aborto, l'eutanasia, la ricerca scientifica e l'omosessualità, dalla tolleranza verso le minoranze etniche e religiose e dall'opposizione alla leva militare ("maggiore libertà personale"). In questo quadrante sono compresi il progressismo, il socialismo, il comunismo e il liberalismo sociale.
- quadrante a destra: libero mercato, meno tasse, privatizzazioni delle aziende pubbliche e dei servizi sociali (maggiore libertà economica), ma anche restrizioni verso diritti civili, stili di vita diversi e su questioni come aborto, ricerca ed omosessualità (minore libertà personale). In questo quadrante sono compresi il conservatorismo, il liberalismo conservatore e il fascismo.
- quadrante in alto: visione libertaria, la stessa di David Nolan; massima libertà sia personale che economica, la cui estremizzazione si può considerare l'anarchia. Esistono comunque due varianti di questa visione, una "di sinistra" e l'altra "di destra".
- quadrante in basso: l'antitesi della visione libertaria; in origine fu definita da David Nolan come populismo, e oggi se ne parla con termini come statalismo, autoritarismo, comunitarismo etotalitarismo. Nell'estremo inferiore di questo quadrante sono compresi il nazifascismo e il socialismo reale.
Voci correlate
Spettro politico
Da Wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera.
Uno spettro politico è un modo di paragonare e visualizzare diverse posizioni politiche, disponendole su uno o più assi geometrici.
Indice
[nascondi]Determinazione degli spettri politici
L'individuazione di uno spettro politico parte dall'assunzione che esista una forte correlazione tra le diverse idee politiche di ogni individuo, oppure che (in un certo contesto/paese) esista una questione politica centrale che riassume o domina tutte le altre. Perché abbia senso definire uno spettro politico, è anche necessario che sia possibile individuare diverse gradazioni di posizioni intermedie. I sistemi politici all'interno dei quali una gran maggioranza ricade chiaramente all'interno di uno dei due raggruppamenti estremi, come ad esempio le controversie nazionalistiche, non possono essere adeguatamente descritti da un particolare spettro politico.
Per fare un esempio, in una nazione islamica moderna, uno spettro politico può essere definito in base alla visione del ruolo del clero nel governo. Quelli che ritengono che il clero debba avere il potere di far applicare integralmente la legge islamica vengono collocati su un estremo dello spettro, mentre quelli che sostengono una società completamente secolare si trovano all'estremo opposto; tutti quelli che hanno visioni più moderate possono essere collocati all'interno di questi due estremi.
Un dato spettro politico può perdere di significato nel corso del tempo se una delle due visioni estreme prende nettamente il sopravvento sull'altra; per fare un esempio che riguarda l'Italia, si può citare la contrapposizione tramonarchici e repubblicani, che ha avuto grandissima rilevanza nell'immediato dopoguerra, ma ha perso di importanza dopo l'affermazione della repubblica. In queste situazioni, normalmente, succede che all'interno della visione diventata egemonicamente maggioritaria emergano nuove differenze che portano a divisioni che possono essere classificate su di un nuovo spettro politico.
In altri casi, al permanere dello stesso spettro politico possono variare le istanze che identificano lo spettro stesso. Ad esempio, lo spettro politico britannico che permane ancora oggi, a distanza di secoli, venne definito dalla corsa alla successione di Guglielmo d'Orange.
Spesso, soprattutto nei sistemi democratici che non contemplano un sistema elettorale maggioritario, possono coesistere molteplici spettri politici. Ad esempio, l'Australia, dalla sua fondazione nel 1901 fino al 1909, ha visto permanere due spettri egualmente determinanti: i liberoscambisti opposti ai protezionisti da una parte e la classe lavoratrice contrapposta alla classe padronale. Tuttavia, nel 1909 i due principali partiti politici sostenitori della prima opposizione (il Partito per il Libero Scambio e il Partito Protezionista) diedero vita al Partito Liberale per poter meglio competere col Partito Laburista. Questa seconda contrapposizione è rimasta dominante nella politicaaustraliana fino a metà degli anni novanta.
Destra e sinistra
Nella maggior parte dei Paesi del mondo (specie in quelli occidentali), lo spettro politico è solitamente definito sull'asse destra-sinistra. Questo spettro politico tradizionale vede come estremi di destra conservatorismo, liberismo,teocrazia, nazionalismo e fascismo, e come estremi di sinistra socialismo, socialdemocrazia, progressismo e comunismo; inoltre comprende anche posizioni più radicali (estrema sinistra, estrema destra) ed altre più moderate (centro-sinistra, centro, centro-destra). Le differenze culturali e nazionali espresse in termini di destra o sinistra sono spesso comuni. Un altro importante asse utilizzato per caratterizzare le posizioni politiche è quello delliberalismo, che però come termine indica posizioni molto diverse nei diversi paesi: in particolare negli Stati Uniti è ritenuto "liberal" chi ha concezioni sociali di sinistra (liberalismo sociale e socialdemocrazia), mentre in Europa si possono definire liberali soprattutto centristi (ALDE) ma anche esponenti di partiti progressisti di Sinistra (Es. sostenitori del liberalismo sociale) o esponenti di partiti conservatori di Destra (Es. Neoliberali o liberisti).
Similarmente, in Cina i termini destra e sinistra sono stati associati a differenti posizioni nel corso della sua storia, tuttavia con istanze molto dissimili da quelle utilizzate nei paesi occidentali.
Molteplicità di interpretazioni dell'asse destra-sinistra
Esistono varie e differenti opinioni su ciò che effettivamente debba essere misurato lungo questo asse ed i criteri spesso sono sfumati tra i diversi partiti:
- egualitarismo (sinistra) contro individualismo (destra);
- redistribuzione della ricchezza (sinistra) contro accettazione delle disuguaglianze (destra);
- politiche economiche interventiste (sinistra) contro laissez-faire (destra);
- relativismo culturale (sinistra) contro valori tradizionali (destra);
- politiche economiche e sociali egualitarie (sinistra) contro libertà economica (destra). Sia la destra che la sinistra tendono a parlare in favore di entrambi, ma con differenti interpretazioni;
- natura umana plasmabile attraverso l'educazione e la cultura (sinistra) contro natura intrinseca e non modificabile (destra);
- religione secolarizzata (sinistra) contro morale religiosa (destra);
- collettivismo (sinistra) contro individualismo economico (destra);
- internazionalismo (sinistra) contro interessi nazionali (destra).
- pace (sinistra) contro guerra (destra) tra nazioni.
- rivoluzione (sinistra) contro pace sociale nella nazione (destra).
Partiti politici nello spettro politico Sinistra-Destra
Ricercatori di scienze politiche hanno osservato che le ideologie dei partiti politici possono essere rappresentate su una mappa lungo un singolo asse che si muove da sinistra a destra.[1]Klaus von Beyme ha categorizzato i partiti europei in nove famiglie, che descrivono la maggior parte dei partiti. È stato così in grado di unire sette di questi da sinistra a destra: comunisti,socialisti, verdi (ambientalisti), liberali, cristiano-democratici, conservatori e estremisti di destra. La posizione dei partiti agrari e regionali variava.[2] Uno studio condotto verso la fine degli anni sulla base di due argomenti - la posizione sul possedimento dei mezzi di produzione e la posizione sulle problematiche sociali - confermò questo schema.[3]
C'è spesso stata una tendenza delle ideologie partitiche di persistere nel tempo, e i valori e le concezioni che erano presenti alla fondazione del partito sono sopravvissute. Tuttavia questi si sono adattati alla società in maniera pragmatica, divenendo così sempre più simili su alcuni punti.[4] Lipset e Rokkan hanno fatto presente che il sistema dei partiti moderni è il prodotto di conflitti sociali che hanno avuto luogo negli ultimi secoli.[5] Argomentando così che le linee di divisione si sono così 'congelate'.[6]
I primi partiti politici moderni erano liberali, organizzati dalla classe media nel XIX secolo per proteggersi dall'aristocrazia. Sono stati i maggiori partiti politici in quel secolo ma sono successivamente caduti in declino verso il XX secolo quando la classe operaia arrivò in supporto ai partiti socialisti, verificandosi così cambiamenti economici e sociali che erosero la base della classe media.[7] I partiti conservatori nacquero in opposizione ai liberali proprio per difendere i privilegi dell'aristocrazia. Ma in ordine per attrarre voti divennero meno dottrinari dei liberali. Tuttavia ebbero insuccesso in divers paesi e divennero in grado di raccogliere potere attraverso la cooperazione con gli altri partiti.[8]
I partiti socialisti erano in organizzati in modo da riuscire a raggiungere diritti politici per i lavoratori che erano originariamente alleati con i liberali. Ciononostante ruppero con essi quando scorsero in essi il controllo dei lavoratori dei mezzi di produzione.[9] I partiti cristiano-democratici vennero creati dai cattolici che vedevano nel liberalismo una minaccia per i valori tradizionali. Nonostante nacquero nel XIX secolo, divennero la maggiore forza politica durante la Seconda Guerra Mondiale[10] I partiti comunisti emersero in seguito alla divisione dal socialismo per andare in sostegno della Prima Guerra Mondiale e in seguito alla Rivoluzione Bolscevica.[11]
Gli estremisti di destra sono difficili da definire, oltre ad essere più di destra rispetto agli altri partiti, ma tra di loro vi sono fascisti e alcuni conservatori estremisti e partiti nazionalisti.[12]
I partiti verdi sono gli ultimi ad essersi sviluppati. Rifiutano il socialismo e sono molto liberali sulle problematiche sociali.[13]
Queste categorie possono essere applicate anche a molti altri partiti fuori dall'Europa.[14]
Origine storica dei termini[modifica | modifica wikitesto]
I termini Destra e Sinistra si riferiscono all'affiliazione politica originata nel primo periodo della rivoluzione francese e corrispondevano alla posizione dei seggi nei vari organi legislativi francesi. Nei confronti del presidente, l'aristocrazia sedeva sulla sua destra, mentre i Comuni sulla sua sinistra.
Originariamente, il punto di definizione dello spettro ideologico era l'ancien règime ("vecchio ordine"). La "Destra" sosteneva gli interessi del re, dell'aristocrazia e della Chiesa, mentre la "Sinistra" vi si opponeva, difendendo principalmente quelli della borghesia, la crescente classe capitalista. A quel tempo, il laissez-faire e il libero mercato erano considerati come istanze di sinistra; oggigiorno, nella maggior parte dei paesi occidentali, queste visioni sono tipiche della destra.
Spettri alternativi
In molti ritengono che le correlazioni tra questi vari concetti non siano così ovvie e pensano che parlare di destra o di sinistra senza indicare esattamente ciò a cui ci si sta riferendo generi molta confusione. Costoro credono che si debba prima stabilire il contesto definendo gli assi attraverso i quali le varie posizioni possano essere misurate. Molti individui o gruppi non si riconoscono in uno spettro così semplicistico.
Benché lo spettro politico destra-sinistra sia molto comune, esistono assi alternativi generalmente sviluppati da chi non si ritiene adeguatamente rappresentato in questo spettro tradizionale.
La progettazione dello spettro può essere in sé politicamente motivato.
Uno spettro politico che è stato usato da studiosi politologici misura il grado di intervento del governo e identifica gli estremi nel totalitarismo e nell'anarchismo (assenza di governo).
Un'alternativa molto in voga con l'avvento dell'ambientalismo utilizza un singolo asse che misura ciò che è bene per l'ambiente contro ciò che è bene per l'economia, che viene considerata come la forza più distruttiva nei confronti della Terra.
Nel 1998 l'autrice politica Virginia Postrel nel suo libro The Future and Its Enemies (trad. it. Il futuro e i suoi nemici) offre uno spettro con un singolo asse che misura la modalità di visione del proprio futuro. Ad un estremo ci sono coloro che temono il futuro e tendono a volerlo controllare, gli immobilisti. All'altro estremo ci sono coloro che non hanno il desiderio di controllare o pianificarlo e che credono che debba svolgersi in maniera spontanea e naturale, i dinamisti. Questa distinzione corrisponde alla spettro utopisti-antiutopisti utilizzato in alcuni trattati teorici liberali e il titolo del libro è una citazione del teorico classico liberale e anti-utopista Karl Popper.
Altri assi possono essere:
- il ruolo della chiesa: Clericalismo contro Anti-clericalismo. Questo asse non è significativo negli Stati Uniti dove le visioni del ruolo della religione tendono ad essere sussunti nell'asse generico destra-sinistra, ma in Europala contrapposizione tra clericalismo ed anti-clericalismo è molto meno correlata dallo spettro destra-sinistra;
- realtà Urbana contro campagna: questo asse acquisisce maggiore significato in Australia o Canada che non in Europa;
- politica estera: interventisti (lo stato dovrebbe intromettersi nelle dispute internazionali e nella politica interna degli altri paesi per implementare la propria) contro Isolazionismo (lo stato non dovrebbe intervenire all'estero);
- violenza politica: pacifismo (le proprie visioni politiche non dovrebbero essere imposte attraverso l'uso della violenza) contro militanza (la violenza è legittima o necessaria ai fini della propria espressione politica). Spesso i sostenitori di queste visioni sono definiti rispettivamente "colombe" o "falchi";
- politiche di commercio estero: Globalizzazione economica (i mercati mondiali dovrebbero essere aperti, integrati ed interdipendenti) contro autarchia (ogni stato dovrebbe ricercare la propria indipendenza economica). Questo asse ha acquisito negli ultimi anni notevole importanza politica soprattutto con le proteste dei movimenti cosiddetti no-global contro il neoliberismo;
- diversità culturale: Multiculturalismo (ogni nazione non è legata ad una cultura dominante, ma deve rappresentare le varie diversità) contro assimilazionismo (la nazione deve integrare nella cultura dominante chi non ne fa parte) o nazionalismo (la nazione dovrebbe primariamente tutelare la cultura dominante);
- partecipazione: Democrazia (governo della maggioranza) contro Oligarchia (governo di un limitato numero di persone o gruppi);
- libertà: libertà positive (il detenere diritti che rappresentano un obbligo per gli altri) contro libertà negative (libertà da interferenze di altri);
- modalità di cambiamento: radicali (chi crede nell'efficacia dei cambiamenti rapidi) contro riformisti (chi crede in cambiamento graduali e progressivi) contro conservatori (chi crede in cambiamenti minimali e molto cauti) e talvolta contro reazionari (chi crede che si deve comunque mantenere lo stato di cose presente);
- origine dell'autorità dello stato: sovranità popolare (lo Stato come derivazione della volontà popolare, con determinati poteri delegati) contro varie forme di assolutismi (lo Stato come derivato da una autorità singola, talvolta originale).
Modelli multi-asse
Un modello ad un singolo asse è altamente semplicistico e raggruppa insieme differenti concetti politici; in particolare, ci sono molti modi per definire lo spettro destra-sinistra che non producono la stessa classificazione.
Molte delle filosofie politiche che si sono manifestate negli ultimi due secoli non si adattano sul modello unidimensionale destra-sinistra, in particolare l'anarchismo e la dottrina libertaria. L'anarchismo si assume essere di "sinistra", mentre la dottrina libertaria, nella sua accezione anglosassone del termine, di "destra". Tuttavia, su di uno spettro unidimensionale, l'anarchismo è collocato nello stesso spazio delle varie dottrine marxiste, in maniera ovviamente inappropriata: l'anarchismo sottintende il rifiuto dell'esistenza dello stato e della varie forme di controllo sulla società (come la proprietà privata), mentre le varie forme di marxismo applicato implicano il controllo della società su numerose attività umane. All'altro estremo, la dottrina libertaria si trova collocata nello stesso spazio politico del fascismo, in maniera allo stesso modo impropria.
Per risolvere questi problemi sono state proposti numerosi sistemi a due assi, che combinino due modelli di spettri politici.
Modello di Eysenck
Il primo ad escogitare un modello a due assi fu Hans Eysenck nel suo libro "Sense and Nonsense in Psychology" (trad. it. "Senso e Nonsenso nella psicologia") del 1964. Partendo dal tradizionale spettro destra-sinistra Eysenck aggiunse un asse verticale che teneva in considerazione della "inflessibilità mentale" (tendenza autoritaria) e della "elasticità mentale" (tendenza democratica). Questo nuovo asse permette a coloro che hanno avuto vedute molto differenti riguardo all'autorità ma che sono collocati nella stesso spettro destra-sinistra (come, ad esempio, Stalin e Noam Chomsky) di essere distinti.
Diagramma di Nolan
Un altro modello è il diagramma di Nolan, creato dal libertario David Nolan. Questo diagramma mostra ciò che considera "libertà economica" (taglio delle tasse, libero mercato, riduzione della spesa pubblica, privatizzazioni) sull'asse x e la "libertà personale" (diritti civili e sociali, legalizzazione delle droghe, aborto, eutanasia, ricerca scientifica, abolizione della leva militare) sull'asse y. Questo pone progressisti, socialisti e comunisti nel quadrante a sinistra, in alto i libertari, a destra conservatori e fascisti e in basso autoritari e comunitaristi (che Nolan definì originariamente populisti).
Il tradizionale spettro destra-sinistra forma una diagonale lungo il diagramma di Nolan, con il nazifascismo e il comunismo sovietico entrambi nell'angolo del quadrante populista.
Il diagramma di Nolan è stato riorientato e rappresentato visualmente in molte forme da quando venne ideato ed è stato l'ispirazione per moltissimi quiz politici, di cui forse il più famoso è World's Smallest Political Quiz (in inglese).
Political Compass
Seguendo il metodo di Eysenck, il modello utilizzato dall'organizzazione Political Compass (trad. it. "Bussola politica") pone le istanze economiche sull'asse orizzontale e quelle sociali sull'asse verticale. Forse il più popolare e conosciuto quiz politico online (in inglese).
Diagramma di Pournelle
Un terzo modello bidimensionale, molto differente, fu creato da Jerry Pournelle. Il Diagramma di Pournelle pone la libertà (una dimensione similare alla diagonale del diagramma di Nolan) perpendicolare al razionalismo, definito come la convinzione nel progresso sociale attraverso la pianificazione.
Note
Most long-standing spectra include a right wing and left wing, which originally referred to seating arrangements in the French parliament after the Revolution (1789–99). According to the simplest left–right axis, communism and socialism are usually regarded internationally as being on the left, opposite fascism and conservatism on the right. Liberalism can mean different things in different contexts, sometimes on the left (social liberalism), sometimes on the right (economic liberalism). Politics that rejects the conventional left–right spectrum is known as syncretic politics.[2][3] Those with an intermediate outlook are classified as centrists or moderates.
Political scientists have frequently noted that a single left–right axis is insufficient for describing the existing variation in political beliefs, and often include other axes. Though the descriptive words at polar opposites may vary, often in popular biaxial spectra the axes are split between sociocultural issues and economic issues, each scaling from some form ofindividualism (or government for the freedom of the individual) to some form of communitarianism (or government for the welfare of the community). In this context, the contemporary American left is often considered individualist (or libertarian) on sociocultural issues and communitarian (or populist) on economic issues, while the contemporary American right is often considered communitarian (or populist) on sociocultural issues and individualist (or libertarian) on economic issues.
Historical origin of the terms
The terms "Right" and "Left" refer to political affiliations which originated early in the French Revolutionary era of 1789–1799, and referred originally to the seating arrangements in the various legislative bodies of France. Thearistocracy sat on the right of the Speaker (traditionally the seat of honor) and the commoners sat on the Left, hence the terms Right-wing politics and Left-wing politics.
Originally, the defining point on the ideological spectrum was the ancien régime ("old order"). "The Right" thus implied support for aristocratic or royal interests, and the church, while "The Left" implied support for republicanism,secularism, and civil liberties.[4] Because the political franchise at the start of the revolution was relatively narrow, the original "Left" represented mainly the interests of the bourgeoisie, the rising capitalist class (with notable exceptions such as the proto-communist Gracchus Babeuf). Support for laissez-faire capitalism and free markets were expressed by politicians sitting on the left, because these represented policies favorable to capitalists rather than to the aristocracy; but outside of parliamentary politics, these views are often characterized as being on the Right.
The reason for this apparent contradiction lies in the fact that those 'to the left' of the parliamentary left, outside of official parliamentary structures (such as the sans-culottes of the French Revolution), typically represent much of the working class, poor peasantry, and the unemployed. Their political interests in the French Revolution lay with opposition to the aristocracy, and so they found themselves allied with the early capitalists. However, this did not mean that their economic interests lay with the 'laissez-faire' policies of those representing them politically.
As capitalist economies developed, the aristocracy became less relevant and were mostly replaced by capitalist representatives. The size of the working class increased as capitalism expanded, and began to find expression partly through trade unionist, socialist, anarchist, and communist politics, rather than being confined to the capitalist policies expressed by the original 'left'. This evolution has often pulled parliamentary politicians away from laissez-faire economic policies, although this has happened to different degrees in different countries.
Thus, the word 'left' in American political parlance may refer to 'liberalism' and be identified with the Democratic Party, whereas in a country such as France these positions would be regarded as relatively more right-wing, and 'left' is more likely to refer to 'socialist' positions rather than 'liberal' ones.
Academic investigation
For almost a century, social scientists have considered the problem of how best to describe political variation.
Leonard W. Ferguson
In 1950, Leonard W. Ferguson analyzed political values using ten scales measuring attitudes toward: birth control, capital punishment, censorship, communism, evolution, law, patriotism, theism, treatment of criminals, and war. Submitting the results to factor analysis, he was able to identify three factors, which he named Religionism, Humanitarianism, and Nationalism. He defined Religionism as belief in God and negative attitudes toward evolution andbirth control; Humanitarianism as being related to attitudes opposing war, capital punishment and harsh treatment of criminals; and Nationalism as describing variation in opinions on censorship, law, patriotism and communism.
This system was derived empirically; rather than devising a political model on purely theoretical grounds and testing it, Ferguson's research was exploratory. As a result of this method, care must be taken in the interpretation of Ferguson's three factors, as factor analysis will output an abstract 'factor' whether an objectively real factor exists or not.[5] Although replication of the Nationalism factor was inconsistent, the finding of Religionism andHumanitarianism had a number of replications by Ferguson and others.[6][7]
Hans Eysenck
Shortly afterward, Hans Eysenck began researching political attitudes in Great Britain. He believed that there was something essentially similar about the National Socialists or Nazis on the one hand, and the Communists on the other, despite their opposite positions on the left–right axis. As Hans Eysenck described in his 1956 book Sense and Nonsense in Psychology,[8] Eysenck compiled a list of political statements found in newspapers and political tracts and asked subjects to rate their agreement or disagreement with each. Submitting this value questionnaire to the same process of factor analysis used by Ferguson, Eysenck drew out two factors, which he named "Radicalism" (R-factor) and "Tender-Mindedess" (T-factor).
Such analysis produces a factor whether or not it corresponds to a real-world phenomenon, and so caution must be exercised in its interpretation. While Eysenck's R-factor is easily identified as the classical "left–right" dimension, the T-factor (representing a factor drawn at right angles to the R-factor) is less intuitive; high-scorers favored pacifism, racial equality, religious education, and restrictions on abortion, while low-scorers had attitudes more friendly to militarism, harsh punishment, easier divorce laws, and companionate marriage.
Despite the difference in methodology, location, and theory, the results attained by Eysenck and Ferguson matched; simply rotating Eysenck's two factors 45 degrees renders the same factors of Religionism andHumanitarianism identified by Ferguson in America.[9]
Eysenck's dimensions of R and T were found by factor analyses of values in Germany and Sweden,[10] France,[9] and Japan.[11]
One interesting result Eysenck noted in his 1956 work was that in the United States and Great Britain, most of the political variance was subsumed by the left/right axis, while in France, the T-axis was larger, and in the Middle East, the only dimension to be found was the T-axis: "Among mid-Eastern Arabs it has been found that while the tough-minded/tender-minded dimension is still clearly expressed in the relationships observed between different attitudes, there is nothing that corresponds to the radical-conservative continuum."[9]
Relationship between Eysenck's political views and political research
Eysenck's political views related to his research: Eysenck was an outspoken opponent of what he perceived as the authoritarian abuses of the left and right, and accordingly he believed that, with this T axis, he had found the link between nazism and communism. According to Eysenck, members of both ideologies were tough-minded. Central to Eysenck's thesis was the claim that tender-minded ideologies were democratic and friendly to human freedoms, while tough-minded ideologies were aggressive and authoritarian, a claim that is open to political criticism. In this context, Eysenck carried out studies on nazism and communist groups, claiming to find members of both groups to be more "dominant" and more "aggressive" than control groups.[9]
Eysenck left Nazi Germany to live in Britain, and was not shy in attacking Stalinist 'communism' (which he regarded as representative of communist ideology), noting the anti-Semitic prejudices of the Russian government, the luxurious lifestyles of the USSR's leaders despite their talk about equality and the poverty of their people, and the Orwellian "doublethink" of East Germany's naming itself the German Democratic Republic despite being "one of the most undemocratic regimes in the world today."[12] While Eysenck was an opponent of Nazism, his relationship with fascist organizations was more complex. Eysenck himself lent theoretical support to the English National Party (which also opposed "Hitlerite" Nazism), and was interviewed in the first issue of their journal The Beacon in relation to his controversial views on relative intelligence between different races.[13][14] At one point during the interview, Eysenck was asked whether or not he was of Jewish origin before the interviewer proceeded.[15] His political allegiances were called into question by other researchers, notably Steven Rose, who alleged that his scientific research was used for political purposes.[16][17]
Subsequent criticism of Eysenck's research
Eysenck's conception of 'tough-mindedness' has been criticized for a number of reasons.
- Virtually no values were found to load only on the tough/tender dimension.
- The interpretation of tough-mindedness as a manifestation of "authoritarian" versus tender-minded "democratic" values was incompatible with the Frankfurt school's single-axis model, which conceptualized authoritarianismas being a fundamental manifestation of conservatism, and many researchers took issue with the idea of "left-wing authoritarianism."[18]
- The theory which Eysenck developed to explain individual variation in the observed dimensions, relating tough-mindedness to Extroversion and Psychoticism, returned ambiguous research results.[19]
- Eysenck's finding that nazis and communists were more tough-minded than members of mainstream political movements was criticised on technical grounds by Milton Rokeach.[20]
- Eysenck's method of analysis involves the finding of an abstract dimension (a 'factor') that explains the spread of a given set of data (in this case, scores on a political survey). This abstract dimension may or may not correspond to a real material phenomenon, and obvious problems arise when it is applied to human psychology. The second factor in such an analysis (such as Eysenck's T-factor) is the second best explanation for the spread of the data, which is, by definition, drawn at right angles to the first factor. While the first factor, which describes the bulk of the variation in a set of data, is more likely to represent something objectively real, subsequent factors become more and more abstract. Thus, one would expect to find a factor that roughly corresponds to "left" and "right", as this is the dominant framing for politics in our society, but the basis of Eysenck's "tough/tender-minded" thesis (the second, "T"-factor) may well represent nothing beyond an abstract mathematical construct. Such a construct would be expected to appear in factor analysis whether or not it corresponded to something real, thus rendering Eysenck's thesis unfalsifiable through factor analysis.[21][22][23]
Milton Rokeach
Dissatisfied with Hans J. Eysenck's work, Milton Rokeach developed his own two-axis model of political values in 1973, basing this on the ideas of freedom and equality, which he described in his book, The Nature of Human Values.[24]
Milton Rokeach claimed that the defining difference between the left and right was that the left stressed the importance of equality more than the right. Despite his criticisms of Eysenck's tough-tender axis, Rokeach also postulated a basic similarity between communism and nazism, claiming that these groups would not value freedom as greatly as more conventional social democrats, democratic socialists and capitalists would, and he wrote that "the two value model presented here most resembles Eysenck's hypothesis."[24]
To test this model, Milton Rokeach and his colleagues used content analysis on works exemplifying nazism (written by Adolf Hitler), communism (written by V.I. Lenin), capitalism (by Barry Goldwater) and socialism (written by various socialist authors). This method has been criticized for its reliance on the experimenter's familiarity with the content under analysis, and its dependence on the researcher's particular political outlooks.
Multiple raters made frequency counts of sentences containing synonyms for a number of values identified by Rokeach, including freedom and equality, and Rokeach analyzed these results by comparing the relative frequency rankings of all the values for each of the four texts:
In excerpts from...
- Socialists (socialism) — Freedom ranked 1st, Equality ranked 2nd
- Hitler (Nazism) – Freedom ranked 16th, Equality ranked 17th
- Goldwater (capitalism) — Freedom ranked 1st, Equality ranked 16th
- Lenin (communism) — Freedom ranked 17th, Equality ranked 1st
Later studies using samples of American ideologues[25] and American presidential inaugural addresses[26] attempted to apply this model.
Later research
In further research,[27] Hans J. Eysenck refined his methodology to include more questions on economic issues. Doing this, he revealed a split in the left–right axis between social policy and economic policy, with a previously undiscovered dimension of socialism-capitalism (S-factor).
While factorially distinct from Eysenck's previous R factor, the S-factor did positively correlate with the R-factor, indicating that a basic left–right or right–left tendency underlies both social values and economic values, although S tapped more into items discussing economic inequality and big business, while R relates more to the treatment of criminals, and to sexual issues and military issues.
Most research and political theory since this time has replicated the factors shown above.[citation needed]
Another replication came from Ronald Inglehart's research into national opinions based on the World Values Survey, although Inglehart's research described the values of countries rather than individuals or groups of individuals within nations. Inglehart's two-factor solution took the form of Ferguson's original Religionism and Humanitarianism dimensions; Inglehart labelled them "secularism–traditionalism", which covered issues of tradition and religion, like patriotism, abortion, euthanasia and the importance of obeying the law and authority figures, and "survivalism – self expression", which measured issues like everyday conduct and dress, acceptance of diversity (includingforeigners) and innovation, and attitudes towards people with specific controversial lifestyles such as homosexuality and vegetarianism, as well as willingness to engage in political activism. See[28] for Inglehart's national chart.
Other proposed dimensions
Numerous alternatives exist, usually developed by those that feel their views are not fairly represented on the traditional right-left spectrum.
One alternative spectrum offered by the conservative American Federalist Journal[29] accounts for only the "Degree of Government Control" without consideration for any other social or political variable, and thus places "Fascism" (totalitarianism) at one extreme and "Anarchism" (no government at all) at the other extreme.
In 1998, political author Virginia Postrel, in her book The Future and Its Enemies, offered another single-axis spectrum that measures views of the future, contrasting stasists, who allegedly fear the future and wish to control it, and dynamists, who want the future to unfold naturally and without attempts to plan and control. The distinction corresponds to theutopian versus dystopian spectrum used in some theoretical assessments of liberalism, and the book's title is borrowed from the work of the anti-utopian classic-liberal theorist Karl Popper.
Other proposed axes include:
- Focus of political concern: Communitarianism vs. Individualism. These labels are preferred[30] to the loaded language of "totalitarianism" (anti-freedom) vs. "libertarianism" (pro-freedom), because one can have a political focus on the community without being totalitarian and undemocratic. Council communism is a political philosophy that would be counted as communitarian on this axis, but is not totalitarian or undemocratic.
- Responses to conflict: according to the political philosopher Charles Blattberg, those who would respond to conflict with conversation should be considered as on the left, with negotiation as in the centre, and with force as on the right. See his essay "Political Philosophies and Political Ideologies."[31]
- Role of the church: Clericalism vs. Anti-clericalism. This axis is less significant in the United States (where views of the role of religion tend to be subsumed into the general left–right axis) than in Europe (where clericalism versus anti-clericalism is much less correlated with the left–right spectrum).
- Urban vs. rural: This axis is significant today in the politics of Europe, Australia, and Canada. The urban vs. rural axis was equally prominent in the United States' political past, but its importance is debatable at present. In the late 18th century and early 19th century in the United States, it would have been described as the conflict between Hamiltonian Federalists and Jeffersonian Democrats.
- Foreign policy: interventionism (the nation should exert power abroad to implement its policy) vs. non-interventionism (the nation should keep to its own affairs); similarly, multilateralism (coordination of policies with other countries) vs. isolationism and unilateralism
- Relations with individual states or groups of states may also be vital to party politics. During the Cold War, parties often had to choose a position on a scale between pro-American and pro-Soviet Union, although this could at times closely match a left–right spectrum. At other times in history relations with other powerful states has been important. In early Canadian history relations with Great Britain were a central theme, although this was not "foreign policy" but a debate over the proper place of Canada within the British Empire.
- International action: Multilateralism (states should cooperate and compromise) versus Unilateralism (states have a strong, even unconditional, right to make their own decisions).
- Political violence: pacifism (political views should not be imposed by violent force) vs. militancy (violence is a legitimate or necessary means of political expression). In North America, particularly in the United States, holders of these views are often referred to as "doves" and "hawks", respectively.
- Foreign trade: globalization (world economic markets should become integrated and interdependent) vs. autarky (the nation or polity should strive for economic independence). During the early history of the Commonwealth of Australia, this was the major political continuum. At that time it was called Free trade vs. Protectionism.
- Trade freedom vs. trade equity: Free trade (businesses should be able trade across borders without regulations) vs. Fair trade (international trade should be regulated on behalf of social justice).
- Diversity: multiculturalism (the nation should represent a diversity of cultural ideas) vs. assimilationism or nationalism (the nation should primarily represent, or forge, a majority culture).
- Participation: Democracy (rule of the majority) vs. Aristocracy (rule by the enlightened, elitism) vs. Tyranny (total degradation of Aristocracy, ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle recognized tyranny as a state in which the tyrant is ruled by utter passion, and not reason like the philosopher, resulting in the tyrant pursuing his own desires rather than the common good.)
- Freedom: Positive liberty (having rights which impose an obligation on others) vs. Negative liberty (having rights which prohibit interference by others).
- Social power: Totalitarianism vs. Anarchism (Control vs. No Control) Analyzes the fundamental political interaction among people, and between individuals and their environment. Often posits the existence of a 'moderate' system as existing between the two extremes.
- Change: radicals (who believe in rapid change) and progressives (who believe in measured, incremental change) vs. conservatives (who believe in preserving the status quo) vs. reactionaries (who believe in changing things to a previous state).
- Origin of state authority: popular sovereignty (the state as a creation of the people, with enumerated, delegated powers) vs. various forms of absolutism and organic state philosophy (the state as an original and essential authority) vs. the view held in anarcho-primitivism that "Civilization originates in conquest abroad and repression at home."[32]
- Levels of sovereignty: unionism vs. federalism vs. separatism; or centralism vs. regionalism. Especially important in societies where strong regional or ethnic identities are political issues.
- European Integration (in Europe): Euroscepticism vs. European federalism; nation state vs. multinational state.
Other multi-axis models[edit]
Nolan: economic freedom, personal freedom
Main article: Nolan chart
The Nolan chart was created by libertarian David Nolan. This chart shows what he considers as "economic freedom" (issues like taxation, free trade and free enterprise) on the horizontal axis and what he considers as "personal freedom" (issues like drug legalization, abortion and the draft) on the vertical axis. This puts left-wingers in the left quadrant, libertarians in the top,right-wingers in the right, and what Nolan originally named populists in the bottom. It is possible to consider the Nolan chart to be an Eysenck model that has been rotated 45 degrees. The popular "diamond" presentation of the Nolan chart makes this particular comparison readily apparent.
The traditional left–right spectrum forms a diagonal across the Nolan chart, with communism and fascism both in the ultra-populist corner, an assignment hotly disputed by more liberal-minded communists who do not advocate state control over matters of personal freedom. There are some discrepancies among various forms of the model. In some,[citation needed] the bottom section is labeled with neutral, non-pejorative terms (such as 'communitarian') whereas others use emotional, loaded terms such as 'statist', 'authoritarian', or 'totalitarian'.
The Nolan chart has been reoriented and visually represented in many forms since David Nolan first created it, and has been the inspiration for an endless array of political self-quizzes, perhaps the most famous of these being the World's Smallest Political Quiz, which places one on the Diamond Chart with "statist" at the bottom. As of 2005 this quiz is being used in 150 schools.[33] It can be found in at least a dozen popular textbooks that feature the Quiz as part of their enhanced digital content.[34] In August 2000 Portrait of America did a telephone survey that was done using the same questions and scale.[35] More recently, The Institute for Humane Studies has created Politopia, a similar quiz. The Institute found that most applicants fell into the lower, populist section.[citation needed]
Three axis variants of Nolan Chart
There are two three-axis models based on the Nolan Chart. The Friesian Institute has suggested a model that combines the economic liberty and personal liberty axes with positive liberty, creating a cube. The Vosem Chart (from Russian восемь vosem 'eight') splits the economic axis of the Nolan chart into two axes, corporate economics (z-axis) and individual economics (y-axis), which combine with the civil liberty axis (x-axis) to form a cube. Max Barry's NationStates uses the Nolan chart to classify each nation, but adds political freedom along the z-axis.
Political compass
Main article: Political compass
The political compass has two axes. One represents economic issues as right-vs-left. The other represents issues of freedom, or social issues, as authoritarian-vs-libertarian. One can determine their position on the political compass through an online quiz by the same name.
Greenberg & Jonas: left–right, ideological rigidity
In a 2003 Psychological Bulletin paper,[36] Jeff Greenberg and Eva Jonas posit a model comprising the standard left–right axis and an axis representing ideological rigidity. For Greenberg and Jonas, ideological rigidity has "much in common with the related concepts of dogmatism and authoritarianism" and is characterized by "believing in strong leaders and submission, preferring one’s own in-group, ethnocentrism and nationalism, aggression against dissidents, and control with the help of police and military." Greenberg and Jonas posit that high ideological rigidity can be motivated by "particularly strong needs to reduce fear and uncertainty" and is a primary shared characteristic of "people who subscribe to any extreme government or ideology, whether it is right-wing or left-wing."
Pournelle: liberty-control, irrationalism-rationalism
Main article: Pournelle chart
This very distinct two-axis model was created by Jerry Pournelle in 1963 for his doctoral dissertation in political science. The Pournelle chart has liberty on one axis, with those on the left seeking freedom from control or protections for social deviance and those on the right emphasizing state authority or protections for norm enforcement (farthest right being state worship, farthest left being the idea of a state as the "ultimate evil"). The other axis is rationalism, defined here as the belief in planned social progress, with those higher up believing that there are problems with society that can be rationally solved, and those lower down skeptical of such approaches.
Inglehart: traditionalist–secular, and self expressionist – survivalist
In its 4 January 2003 issue, The Economist discussed a chart,[28] proposed by Dr. Ronald Inglehart and supported by the World Values Survey (associated with the University of Michigan), to plot cultural ideology onto two dimensions. On the y-axis it covered issues of tradition and religion, like patriotism, abortion,euthanasia and the importance of obeying the law and authority figures. At the bottom of the chart is the traditionalist position on issues like these (with loyalty to country and family and respect for life considered important), while at the top is the secular position. The x-axis deals with self-expression, issues like everyday conduct and dress, acceptance of diversity (including foreigners) and innovation, and attitudes towards people with specific controversial lifestyles such as vegetarianism, as well as willingness to engage in political activism. At the right of the chart is the open self-expressionist position, while at the left is its opposite position, which Dr. Inglehart calls survivalist. This chart not only has the power to map the values of individuals, but also to compare the values of people in different countries. Placed on this chart, EU countries in continental Europe come out on the top right, Anglophone countries on the middle right, Latin American countries on the bottom right, African, Middle Eastern and South Asian countries on the bottom left, and ex-Communist countries on the top left.
Mitchell: Eight Ways to Run the Country[edit]
Brian Patrick Mitchell identifies four main political traditions in Anglo-American history.[37] Mitchell analyzed modern American political perspectives according to their regard for kratos (defined as the use of force) and archē or “archy” (defined as the recognition of rank), grounding this distinction of archy and kratos in the West's historical experience of church and state and crediting the collapse of the Christian consensus on church and state with the appearance of four main divergent traditions in Western political thought:
- republican constitutionalism = pro archy, anti kratos
- libertarian individualism = anti archy, anti kratos
- democratic progressivism = anti archy, pro kratos
- plutocratic nationalism = pro archy, pro kratos
Mitchell charts these traditions graphically using a vertical axis as a scale of kratos/akrateia and a horizontal axis as a scale of archy/anarchy. He places democratic progressivism in the lower left, plutocratic nationalism in the lower right, republican constitutionalism in the upper right, and libertarian individualism in the upper left. The political left is therefore distinguished by its rejection of archy, while the political right is distinguished by its acceptance of archy. For Mitchell, anarchy is not the absence of government but the rejection of rank. Thus there can be both anti-government anarchists (Mitchell’s "libertarian individualists") and pro-government anarchists (Mitchell's "democratic progressives", who favor the use of government force against social hierarchies such as patriarchy). Mitchell also distinguishes between left-wing anarchists and right-wing anarchists, whom Mitchell renames "akratists" for their opposition to the government’s use of force. Anthony Gregory of the Independent Institute credits Mitchell with "the best explanation of the political spectrum," saying he "makes sense of all the major mysteries."[38]
Political-spectrum-based forecasts
As shown by Russian political scientist Stepan S. Sulakshin,[39] political spectra can be used as a forecasting tool. Sulakshin offered mathematical evidence that stable development (positive dynamics of the vast number of statistic indices) depends on the width of the political spectrum: if it is too narrow or too wide, stagnation or political disasters will result. Sulakshin also showed that, in the short run, the political spectrum determines the statistic indices dynamic and not vice versa.
Biological variables
Main article: Biology and political orientation
See also
- Cleavage (politics)
- Jennifer Government: NationStates
- Left–right politics
- List of politics-related topics
- Psephology
- Horseshoe theory
Notes
- ^ "What Is Left Or Right?". Retrieved 16 December 2013.
- ^ Griffin, Roger (1995). Fascism. Oxford University Press. pp. 8,307. ISBN 978-0-19-289249-2.
- ^ Eatwell, Roger (2003). "A 'Spectral-Syncretic' Approach to Fascism". In Kallis, Aristotle A. The fascism reader. Routledge. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-415-24359-9.
- ^ Knapp, Andrew; Wright, Vincent (2006). The Government and Politics of France (5th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 0-415-35732-2.
- ^ SAS(R) 3.11 Users Guide, Multivariate Analysis: Factor Analysis
- ^ Ferguson, L.W. (1941). "The Stability of the Primary Social Attitudes: I. Religionism and Humanitarianism". Journal of Psychology 12 (2): 283–8. doi:10.1080/00223980.1941.9917075.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, C. (1949). "Religion and humanitarianism: a study of institutional implications". Psychological Monograph63 (9).
- ^ Digital Text International homepage
- ^ ab c d Eysenck, H.J. (1956). Sense and nonsense in psychology. London: Penguin Books.
- ^ Eysenck, H.J. (1953). "Primary social attitudes: A comparison of attitude patterns in England, Germany, and Sweden". Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 48 (4): 563–8. doi:10.1037/h0054347.
- ^ Dator, J.A. (1969). "Measuring attitudes across cultures: A factor analysis of the replies of Japanese judges to Eysenck's inventory of conservative-progressive ideology". In Schubert, Glendon A.; Danelski, David Joseph.Comparative judicial behavior: cross-cultural studies of political decision-making in the East and West. Oxford University Press.
- ^ Eysenck, H.J. (1981). "Left-Wing Authoritarianism: Myth or Reality?, by Hans J. Eysenck" Political Psychology
- ^ "An Interview with Prof. Hans Eysenck", Beacon February 1977
- ^ Stephen Rose, "Racism" Nature 14 September 1978, volume 275, page 86
- ^ Billig, Micheal. (1979) "Psychology, Racism and Fascism", Chapter 6, footnote #70. Published by A.F. & R. Publications.
- ^ Stephen Rose, "Racism Refuted", Nature 24 August 1978, volume 274, page 738
- ^ Stephen Rose, "Racism", Nature 14 September 1978, volume 275, page 86
- ^ Stone, W.F. (1980). "The myth of left-wing authoritarianism". Political Psychology 2 (3/4): 3–19.doi:10.2307/3790998. JSTOR 3790998.
- ^ Ray, J.J.; Bozek, R.S. (1981). "Authoritarianism and Eysenck's P-scale". Journal of Social Psychology 113 (2): 231–4. doi:10.1080/00224545.1981.9924374.
- ^ Rokeach, Milton; Hanley, Charles (March 1956). "Eysenck's Tender-Mindedness Dimension: A critique".Psychological Bulletin 53 (2): 169–176. doi:10.1037/h0045968. PMID 13297921.
- ^ Wiggins, J.S. (1973) Personality and Prediction: Principles of Personality Assessment. Addison-Wesley
- ^ Lykken, D. T. (1971) Multiple factor analysis and personality research. Journal of Experimental Research in Personality 5: 161-170.
- ^ Ray JJ (1973) Factor analysis and attitude scales. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology 9(3):11–12.
- ^ ab Rokeach, Milton (1973). The nature of human values. Free Press.
- ^ Rous, G.L.; Lee, D.E. (Winter 1978). "Freedom and Equality: Two values of political orientation". Journal of Communication 28: 45–51. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1978.tb01561.x.
- ^ Mahoney, J.; Coogle, C.L.; Banks, P.D. (1984). "Values in presidential inaugural addresses: A test of Rokeach's two-factor theory of political ideology". Psychological Reports 55 (3): 683–6. doi:10.2466/pr0.1984.55.3.683.
- ^ Eysenck, Hans (1976). "The structure of social attitudes". Psychological Reports 39 (2): 463–6.doi:10.2466/pr0.1976.39.2.463.
- ^ ab Inglehart, Ronald; Welzel, Christian. "The WVS Cultural Map of the World". World Values Survey. Retrieved2013-12-18.
- ^ Federalistjournal.com
- ^ Horrell, David (2005). "Paul Among Liberals and Communitarians". Pacifica 18 (1): 33–52.
- ^ Blattberg, Charles (2009). "Political Philosophies and Political Ideologies". Patriotic Elaborations: Essays in Practical Philosophy. McGill-Queen's University Press.
- ^ Diamond, Stanley, In Search Of The Primitive: A Critique Of Civilization, (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1981), p. 1.
- ^ The Quiz in Classrooms
- ^ The Quiz in Textbooks
- ^ Poll Results - Libertarian Litmus Test
- ^ Greenberg, J.; Jonas, E. (2003). "Psychological Motives and Political Orientation—The Left, the Right, and the Rigid: Comment on Jost et al. (2003)" (PDF). Psychological Bulletin 129 (3): 376–382. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.3.376.
- ^ Mitchell, Brian Patrick (2007). Eight ways to run the country: a new and revealing look at left and right. Greenwood Publishing. ISBN 978-0-275-99358-0.
- ^ Gregory, Anthony, “What About the 'Real' Left?”, Lewrockwell.com, July 6, 2011.
- ^ Sulakshin, S. (2010). "A Quantitative Political Spectrum and Forecasting of Social Evolution". International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences 5 (4): 55–66.
External links
- Idealog (Education+Quiz)
- Politopia (Quiz)
- The Political Compass
- Redefining the Political Spectrum — The Rational Spectrum