La nuova Via della Seta dalla Siria alla Cina

La Nuova via della seta è un'iniziativa strategica della Cina per il miglioramento dei collegamenti e della cooperazione tra paesi nell'Eurasia. Comprende le direttrici terrestri della "zona economica della via della seta" e la "via della seta marittima del XXI secolo" (in cinese: 丝绸之路经济带和21世纪海上丝绸之路^S, Sīchóu zhī lù jīngjìdài hé èrshíyī shìjì hǎishàng sīchóu zhī lù^P), ed è conosciuta anche come "iniziativa della zona e della via" (Belt and Road Initiative , BRI ) o "una zona, una via" e col corrispondente acronimo inglese OBOR (one belt, one road).

Partendo dallo sviluppo delle infrastrutture di trasporto e logistica, la strategia mira a promuovere il ruolo della Cina nelle relazioni globali, favorendo i flussi di investimenti internazionali e gli sbocchi commerciali per le produzioni cinesi. L'iniziativa di un piano organico per i collegamenti terrestri (la cintura) è stata annunciata pubblicamente dal presidente cinese Xi Jinping a settembre del 2013, e la via marittima ad ottobre dello stesso anno, contestualmente alla proposta di costituire la Banca asiatica d'investimento per le infrastrutture (AIIB), dotata di un capitale di 100 miliardi di dollari USA, di cui la Cina stessa sarebbe il principale socio, con un impegno pari a 29,8 miliardi e gli altri paesi asiatici (tra cui l'India e la Russia) e dell'Oceania avrebbero altri 45 miliardi (l'Italia si è impegnata a sottoscrivere una quota di 2,5 miliardi).

La Via della Seta Terrestre attraversa tutta l'Asia Centrale e arriva dalla Cina fino alla Spagna: con le infrastrutture esistenti sono già stati simbolicamente inaugurati i collegamenti merci diretti fino a Berlino e Madrid, ma è allo studio anche la possibilità di una linea passeggeri ad alta velocità. La Via Marittima costeggia tutta l'Asia Orientale e Meridionale, arrivando fino al Mar Mediterraneo attraverso il canale di Suez. L’Italia sarebbe direttamente coinvolta nel progetto, offrendo l’ultimo porto del Mediterraneo prima del transito delle merci verso il Nord Europa.

Le proposte avanzate dal Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri Paolo Gentiloni durante l’OBOR Summit a Pechino sono Venezia, Trieste e Genova.

La AIIB è un veicolo per catalizzare gli investimenti necessari al miglioramento delle infrastrutture ferroviarie e portuali, complessivamente stimati in 1800 miliardi di dollari in dieci anni.^[1] Nel quadro dell'iniziativa della Nuova via della seta la Cina sta promuovendo anche investimenti diretti, anche in ambiti anche non direttamente collegati alla logistica. A questo scopo, nel novembre 2014 ha creato anche un Fondo per la Via della Seta, dotandolo di 40 miliardi di dollari USA.^[2]

Secondo alcuni studi OBOR coinvolgerebbe fino a 65 nazioni: più della metà della popolazione mondiale, tre quarti delle riserve energetiche e un terzo del prodotto interno lordo globale, rappresenterebbe il più grande progetto di investimento mai compiuto prima, superando, al netto dell’inflazione odierna, di almeno 12 volte l’European Recovery Program, il celebre Piano Marshall.^[3][4]

Note

1. ^ Paolo Borzatta, Ultima chiamata per l'Europa, 02 aprile 2015.
2. ^ (EN) Jeremy Page, China to Contribute $40 Billion to Silk Road Fund New Trade-Development Push Gathers Momentum, in http://www.wsj.com/articles/china-to-contribute-40-billion-to-silk-road-fund-1415454995, 8 novembre 2014.
3. ^ (IT) L'asse si sposta ad Oriente: la nuova Via della Seta | Prosperous Network, in Prosperous Network, 23 giugno 2017. URL consultato il 12 luglio 2017.
4. ^ (EN) Inside China’s Global Spending Spree, in Fortune. URL consultato il 12 luglio 2017.

Bandiere tradizionali e storiche delle regioni italiane

Origine della bandiera degli Stati Uniti d'America e delle sue colonie nel Pacifico

Simbolo e genealogia del clan Dulo, dinastia dei primi re di Bulgaria

Il Clann Dulo fu la prima Dinastia bulgara, il cui capostipite fu Kurt (o Kovrat). Suo figlio, Asparuch, passò il Danubio al tempo di Costantino IV Pogonato (668-685). Contro di essa si schierò Kormisos, della tribù degli Ukil, aprendo la strada alla guerra civile.

Kubrat (anche Kurt, Kovrat, Kobrat, Kuvrat, Korbat, Qobrat, Khudbard, Kuvarog, Krovat, Kurbat e anche Bashtu) (... – ...) è stato uno dei khan dei Bulgari che visse nel VII secolo.

Appartenente alla tribù dei Dulo (Dub o Duba) egli è avaro per discendenza paterna, figlio del balto-avaro Alburi, e bulgaro per discendenza materna.

Kubrat viene confermato dal khan Sibir come primo sovrano degli Onogur (Scythi populi), la seconda dinastia degli Avari. Durante il regno di suo figlio Bajan le terre degli Avari si estenderanno dal Danubio fino al Volga.

Kubrat giunge a Costantinopoli nel 619 come ostaggio e qui viene battezzato. Il suo zio materno Organa (Organ o Ornag) regna, come reggente, sulla sua tribù, gli Onogundur, finché egli non è abbastanza adulto per assumerne il comando. Uno dei primi atti di governo di Kubrat è la pace con l'Impero Bizantino, di cui ammira la cultura.

Alla sua morte viene sepolto a Poltava (che in balto-avaro significa Capo degli Avari). Il suo kurgan è stato scavato nel 1912.

Dopo la morte di Kubrat, il figlio Batbajan (anche detto Bezmer o Bezmes Bayan) eredita il regno ma presto altri "figli" si pongono alla guida di fazioni ribelli provocando la secessione dall'impero di Kubrat. Il primo, conosciuto come Kotrag, dopo aver sollevato alcune tribù, muove verso il Volga, dove fonda lo Stato della Bulgaria del Volga.
In seguito Utzindur (Balkor) muove la tribù ribelle dei Kuber in Pannonia per poi dirigersi verso sud. Atilkese muovendo la sua orda dall'Ucraina verso sud-ovest si unisce ai Bulgari a sud del Danubio fondando lo Stato di Bulgaria. Emnetzur, che inizialmente si rifugia in Pannonia si unisce poi ai Longobardi in marcia verso ovest.

The Dulo clan was the ruling dynasty of the Bulgars. The origins of the Bulgars and Dulo clan are not known precisely, there are many theories about their origin.^[1] It is generally considered that the origin of the Dulo clan and Bulgars, or at least of the elite caste,^[2] is intimately related to the origin and activity of the Huns and Western Turks.^[3]

The royal family and rulers of the Old Great Bulgaria (632–668) and first half of the First Bulgarian Empire (681–1018), in their prince list (Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans) claimed through Irnik, which was probably related or the Attila's son Ernak itself, Attilid descent.^[1][4]

Research history

The most what is known about the clan is written in the Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans. The Nominalia lists as the first ruler mythical Avitohol, who lived 300 years and descended from the Dulo clan.^[5] Josef Marquart and many other historians identified Avitohol with Attila the Hun.^[6][7] Steven Runciman considered the connection possible, but suspicious and unimportant if the link between Irnik-Ernak is confirmed.^[8] Runciman considered the name Avitohol meaningless and its biblical origin more convincing.^[9] He considered that the missionaries were spreading Old Testament stories around the Eurasian Steppes, as well the story of Japheth, the ancestor of Eurasian people, which easily modifies into the Latin name Avitus (ancestral; grandfather) and Turkish Awit (ancestor) it derives from.^[10]Runciman considered Avitohol to be a distant mythological ancestor.^[11] Ivan Biliarsky considers that both Avitohol and Irnik were only mythic figures of the historical personalities.^[7] According to him the Nominalia shows that the clan memory and genealogy important to Central Asian peoples was likewise significant to the Bulgars, as well the cosmological understanding of the history, as the Avitohol and Irnik were mentioned in the category of the creator and founder, the mythological divine ancestor-creator represented in the reincarnation of the cultural hero within time cycles.^[7][12] Jean W Sedlar considered the Attila connection justly doubtful, and argued the possibility of a steppe dynasty which produced Hunnic rulers like Attila may have also produced rulers for the Bulgars.^[13]

The second listed ruler is Irnik, who lived 150 years and also descended from the Dulo clan.^[14] It is generally considered that in the Nominalia under Irnik was considered the third son of Attila, Ernak.^[15][7] Vasil Zlatarski thought the identification between Irnik and Ernak pointless, and they were two different persons and families.^[16] Zlatarski pointed out, which points Runciman considered to be indisputable;^[17] if Irnik was Ernak, then both Ernak and Atilla belonged to the Dulo clan, whereas, actually, no source mentions Dulo clan in connection with them;^[16] according to the Nominalia Irnik ruled from 437, i.e. several years before the death of Attila in 453, which is impossible.^[18] Due to be assigned a reign of 150 years, Runciman considered the inaccuracy of the date of accession as venial mistake.^[8]

Kurt (Kubrat; c. 632–665), a member of the clan, revolted against the Pannonian Avars and founded the Old Great Bulgaria on the territory of modern Ukraine.^[1] During the second half of the 7th century his sons split up the Bulgar royal family and spread over Europe, from the Volga river to the shadow of Matese mountains: Bezmer (Ukraine), Kotrag (Volga Bulgaria), Kuber (Balkan Macedonia), Asparukh (Danube Bulgaria) and Alcek (Sepino, Bojano, Isernia).^[19] In the Nominalia the Bezmer (c. 665–668) was the last Dulo ruler on the Northern side of Danube river (of the Old Great Bulgaria), while the Asparukh (c. 681–701) was the first from the Southern side of the river (First Bulgarian Empire). He was followed by Tervel (c. 700–721), and the last ruler of Bulgaria from the Dulo clan, Sevar (c. 721–737). According to Theophanes, in 761 or 762 the Bulgars "rose up, killed their hereditary lords and set up as their king an evil-minded man called Teletzes, who was 30 years old".^[20] Historians usually interpreted the testimony as evidence of a massacre of the previous dynasty (the Dulo clan), and the rise of a new leader with no connection to the previous regime.^[20][21]

Origin

The exact origin is obscure.^[1] Some researchers consider that the origin of the clan probably was Turkic.^[21][22][23] This proposition was suggested by Mikhail Artamonov,^[24] and was prompted by Lev Gumilev (1967), impling there may be made an association of the Dulo clan with the five Duolu or Tu-lu tribes of the Western Turks.^[24] The First Turkic Khaganate (552–581) was during the Göktürk civil war (581–593) divided into Western and Eastern Khaganate. The Western was led by Onoq (ten arrows), the five Duolu and five Nushibitribes.^[24] Many modern historians consider that the first historical Bulgar ruler Kubrat belonged to the Dulo clan of the Western Turks - the so-called alliance Onogurs Bulgars.^{[25][26][27][28]}

Some historians have even identified the Western qaghan Mohotu (Külüg Sibir) with Organa, the nephew of Kubrat.^[21][29] Accurately or not, it still points to the rivalty between the Bulgars, led by Kubrat from the Dulo clan, and the Khazars, led by the Ashina clan.^[20][29]

Omeljan Pritsak further considered the connection of the name of Dulo clan with the name of the old Xiongnu ruling house T'u-ko (in Early Middle Chinese D'uo'klo).^[28][23] This association could further prove the link between Xiongnu and Huns (as well Huns and Bulgars).^[28][30] Peter B. Golden considers the Turkic association as speculative.^[24]

Mercia MacDermott claimed that the Dulo clan had the dog as its sacred animal.^[31] MacDermott considered that the Bulgarian expression preserved to this day "he kills the dog", in the meaning "he gives the orders", is a relic of the time when the Dulo Khan sacrificed a dog to the deity Tangra in the name of the whole community.^[31]

Some modern Bulgarian scholars, the most prominent of them, namely Peter Dobrev, argued that the Turkic names of the animals in the Bulgar calendar (also found in the Nominalia) show that the Turkic peoples had borrowed these words from the Iranian language (Bulgars). However, according to Raymond Detrez, this theory is rooted in the periods of anti-Turkish sentiment in Bulgaria, and is ideologically motivated.^[32] As such the proto-Bulgar language (of the group which established the state of Bulgaria), was claimed to be of Iranian language although it is generally accepted it was Turkic of Oghuric branch and related to modern Chuvash.^[32]

Aleksandar Burmov noted that the medieval writers under various names mentioned Huns and Bulgars, and some authors mentioned them as separate ethnic categories.^[33] The cases of mixing information for Bulgars and Huns in some authors, as well as possible rapprochement of the names Avitohol - Attila and Irnik - Ernak, do not give reason to draw a line of equality between the two ethnic groups.^[33] According to Burmov there is no historical evidence that the Bulgars and Huns lived in the same territory.^[33] Burmov, Peter B. Golden, Gyula Németh and Panos Sophoulis concluded that claiming of Attilid descent shows the intermingling of European Huns elements with newly arrived Oğuric Turkic groups, as the number of evidence of linguistic, ethnographic and socio-political nature show that Bulgars belonged to the group of Turkic peoples.^{[33][21][23][27]}

Etymology

B. Zhivkov emphasized that Dulo and Nushibi were tribal confederations, and not ruling dynasties.^[29] B. Simeonov derived Dulu from Turkic dul/tul (big, powerful, giant; war horse), and saw Dulo as partly Slavicized form.^[24] The *Dullu Simeonov derived from Old Hunnic dul + lu (mounted, horseman).^[24] According to P. B. Golden no such Hunnic word is attested.^[24] According to G. Clauson, Old Turkic tul denotes "widow, widower".^[24] All theories P. B. Golden considers for now as speculative.^[24]

Legacy

Dulo Hill on Livingston Island, near Antarctica, is named after the Bulgarian ruling dynasty Dulo.^[34]

References

Notes

1. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d John Van Antwerp Fine (1991). The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. University of Michigan Press. pp. 66, 300. ISBN 9780472081493.
2. Jump up^ Pohl 1998.
3. Jump up^ Golden, Peter B. (2011). Studies on the Peoples and Cultures of the Eurasian Steppes. Editura Academiei Române; Editura Istros a Muzeului Brăilei. pp. 143–144. ISBN 9789732721520.
4. Jump up^ Kim 2013, p. 59, 142.
5. Jump up^ Runciman (Book I) 1930, p. 11.
6. Jump up^ Runciman (Book I) 1930, p. 12.
7. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Biliarsky, Ivan (2013). The Tale of the Prophet Isaiah: The Destiny and Meanings of an Apocryphal Text. Brill. pp. 255–257. ISBN 9789004254381.
8. ^ Jump up to:^a b Runciman (Appendix III) 1930, p. 280.
9. Jump up^ Runciman (Book I; Appendix III) 1930, p. 11–12; 281.
10. Jump up^ Runciman (Book I) 1930, p. 11–12, 281.
11. Jump up^ Runciman (Appendix III) 1930, p. 281.
12. Jump up^ Biliarsky, Ivan (2011). Word and Power in Mediaeval Bulgaria. Brill. p. 218. ISBN 9789004191457.
13. Jump up^ Sedlar, Jean W. (2011). East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500. University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295800646.
14. Jump up^ Runciman (Book I) 1930, p. 11–12.
15. Jump up^ Runciman (Appendix III) 1930, p. 11–12, 280–281.
16. ^ Jump up to:^a b Zlatarski 1918, p. 79–80.
17. Jump up^ Runciman (Appendix III) 1930, p. 280–281.
18. Jump up^ Zlatarski 1918, p. 80.
19. Jump up^ Runciman (Book I) 1930, p. 2–24.
20. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Curta, Florin (2006). Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500-1250. Cambridge University Press. pp. 79, 85. ISBN 9780521815390.
21. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Sophoulis, Panos (2011). Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. Brill. pp. 92, 147–148, 71, 111. ISBN 9789004206960.
22. Jump up^ Denis Sinor (1990). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 261. ISBN 0521243041.
23. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Sanping Chen (2012). Multicultural China in the Early Middle Ages. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 97. ISBN 0812206282.
24. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f g h i} Golden, Peter B. (2012), Oq and Oğur~Oğuz*(PDF), Turkish and Middle Eastern Studies, Rutgers University, pp. footnote 37, archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-04-19
25. Jump up^ Brook, Kevin Alan (2006). The Jews of Khazaria. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 13. ISBN 9781442203020.
26. Jump up^ Curta, Florin; Kovalev, Roman (2008). The Other Europe in the Middle Ages: Avars, Bulgars, Khazars and Cumans. Brill. p. 288. ISBN 9789004163898.
27. ^ Jump up to:^a b Golden, Peter B. (2003). Nomads and Their Neighbours in the Russian Steppe: Turks, Khazars and Qipchaqs. Ashgate/Variorum. p. 71. ISBN 9780860788850.
28. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Kim 2013, p. 59.
29. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Boris Zhivkov (2015). Khazaria in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. Brill. pp. 50, 52–53. ISBN 9789004294486.
30. Jump up^ Antonio Carile (1995). Teoderico e i Goti tra oriente e occidente. Longo. p. 28. ISBN 978-88-8063-057-9.
31. ^ Jump up to:^a b MacDermott, Mercia (1998). Bulgarian Folk Customs. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. pp. 21–22. ISBN 9781853024856.
32. ^ Jump up to:^a b Raymond Detrez (2005). Developing Cultural Identity in the Balkans: Convergence Vs. Divergence. Peter Lang. p. 29.
33. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Zlatarski (Burmov) 1948, p. 83.
34. Jump up^ Composite Gazetteer of Antarctica: Dulo Hill.

Sources

• Zlatarski, Vasil N. (1918). Medieval History of the Bulgarian State, Vol I: History of the First Bulgarian Empire, Part I: Age of Hun-Bulgar Domination (679-852) (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Science and Arts Publishers, 2nd Edition (Petar Petrov, Ed.), Zahari Stoyanov Publishers, 4th Edition, 2006. ISBN 954-739-928-4.
• Pohl, Walter (1998), "Conceptions of Ethnicity in Early Medieval Studies", in Lester K. Little; Barbara H. Rosenwein, Debating the Middle Ages: Issues and Readings, Blackwell Publishers, pp. 13–24
• Runciman, Steven (1930). A History of the First Bulgarian Empire. G. Bell & Sons, London.
• Hyun Jin Kim (2013). The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107009066.